Department of Arts and Sciences
Master’s Program in Scandinavian History
Archaeological
Aspects of the Indo-European Problem in Modern Scandinavian Historiography
by
Sergey Sannikov
Linköping 2004
Introduction
Formulation and relevance of the problem.
The Indo-European problem is one of the most debatable problems for
contemporary historical science. The term “Indo-European” itself has
been introduced as early as 1813 by Thomas Young, as a designation for the
linguistic family, discovered by Sir William Johnes, who stated that all the
ancient languages of Europe obviously derive from the common ancestral language.
Since the time of discovery of this linguistic cognation numerous authors
attempted to reconstruct the proto-language of the Indo-Europeans, and to
locate the homeland of people, who spoke it, relying upon the data of
historical linguistics.
The first researcher who formulated the principle of
critical approach of linguistics and archaeology towards the IE problem was German scholar
Otto Schrader (1890), who stated that “only a joint approach of linguistics,
archaeology and history would secure a solution”. The archaeological
aspects of the IE problem were first formulated by German archaeologist Gustaf
Kossinna (1909), who ascribed Mesolithic cultures of
Though nearly every generation of scholars attempted to present the
Indo-European problem as completely “solved” in favour of one or another
conception, the dispute regarding the essence of the cultural innovations in
the Neolithic Europe lasts for nearly one hundred years already. The recent
years have been marked by the growing interest towards the Indo-European
problem and the issues of prehistoric
migrations in Scandinavian archaeological research. It is necessary to
emphasize that the interest towards the IE problem is increasingly high since
the interpretation of the Neolithic cultures of
Historiography.
The Indo-European discussion was first
reflected in 1945 by Danish scholar P.V.Glob in his work “Studier over den
Jyske Enkeltgravskultur”. The author dedicated a special chapter of his
book to the Indo-European discussion, where he presented a survey of the
research from the early works of L.Lindenschmidt and M.Much to the
investigations by O.Recke and G.Heberer. However, it is necessary to note that
almost in all cases the author does not refer to the works of Scandinavian
scholars, but quotes mostly the contemporary German authors. The author
considers primarily racial issues, particularly the problem of correlation of
the Corded Ware culture with a certain racial type. The author concludes his
survey, stating that “the latest investigations have shown, that the Corded
Ware people in Central
Brief survey of the Indo-European problem has
been given by Johannes Brønde
sted in
The most thorough and complex examination of the
archaeological aspects of the Indo-European problem in Scandinavian research
has been presented in 1989 by professor Kristian Kristiansen, in his work,
dedicated to the Single Grave and Corded Ware cultures. The author assigned the
existent approaches to the explanation of the introduction of the SGC to two
main categories, which are the migration and autonomous ones. The author evenly
argued, that the migration hypothesis has been expelled out of the scientific
thought during the post-war years due to the negative ideological effects of
the European militarism, and that the autonomous hypothesis has been given a
green light due to the needs of new political conjuncture. As the article
presents an original research in the considered field, the author does not
delve into the historiographic aspects, introducing only the most relevant
contributions to the problem, related to the period from the works by P.V.Glob
(1944) and K.Struve (1955), to the investigations by K.Ebbesen (1986) and
C.Damm (1989) . Nonetheless, the paper gives a detailed reflection of the
present stage of working out of the problem in modern European researches.
Svend Nielsen made a brief survey of the existent
theories of the development of Indo-European languages in connection with the
archaeological materials in his article “Archaeology and Indo-Europeans”.
The author appeals to the materials of the discussion at
Among the substantial contributions towards the consideration of the
Indo-European problem in Scandinavian historiography should be mentioned the
work by Gösta Bågenholm “Arkeologi och språk i norra Östersjöområdet”.
The author aimed to give a critical survey of existent theories, correlating
the data of archaeology with the data of historical linguistics, and to explain
the Indo-Europeanization of Scandinavia from the diffusionistic point of view.
The author observed the development of the Indo-European discussion from the
works of S.Muller and G.Kossinna to the latest investigations by K.Kristiansen
and C.Prescott. A critical method has been applied to explanation of the
theoretical discussions in attempt to reveal political and social background of
the scholars. However, it is necessary to note that the presentation lacks any
systematic base, and therefore is rather fragmentary and inconsequent. The
author skips considerable contributions to the consideration of the problem,
which were made during 30-s and 40-s of the 20th century,
overemphasizing the works of Mats P. Malmer and the followers of “new
archaeology”, who support the idea of autochthonous cultural development of
Aim of the research.
Depending on the existent historiography, it is possible to state that
even until today there does not exist any complex research, which would
comprise a complete spectre of archaeological aspects of the Indo-European
problem in its regard to Scandinavian region. The aim of the research is to
fulfil this gap, and to investigate how did existent attitudes to the
Indo-European problem developed in Scandinavian research literature. Such kind of problem
requires consideration of the following questions: 1) How did different schools
treat the problem; 2) How did different academic tendencies influence the
consideration; 3) What political and social background is attributed to the
main academic approaches towards the problem.
Methodological points.
In this research a critical
approach towards the explanation of different archaeological conceptions and
theories has been applied. The important idea of the theory is to reveal social
and political implication of the ideas, advocated by the researcher, and to
deconstruct the interpretations, which reflect personal researcher’s attitudes.
The basic point of the theory is that archaeologist himself plays important
role in creation of the archaeological data, notwithstanding if he is aware of
it or not. As it was fairly noticed by Christopher Tilley, “archaeologists,
as is the case in all other disciplines, learn about reality (material remains)
through a discourse (set of terms, ways of writing and speaking) that may be
said to be in a continual process of structuration”. Thus it is possible to
state that researcher is always affected by his personal skills and
preferences, and the result of research often reflects his political and social
background.
Acknowledgement
I would like to notice,
and to apologize in advance, that I keep all the responsibility for the English
text of the quotations, since the translation of the literature from Swedish,
Danish, and Russian languages in all cases is mine. Please, accept my apology
for any stylistic shortcomings in the text of the quotes.
Sergey
Sannikov.
E-mail address: sersa225@student.liu.se
1. Rise of the
IE Problem in the Archaeological Science: 1897-1927.
The preconditions for the disputes regarding the
Indo-European problem in Scandinavian research literature were formed as early
as the end of 19th century by Danish archaeologist Sophus Müller. In
his work of 1897, “Vor Oldtid”, Sophus Müller put
much attention on the introduction of the Single Grave culture in
Further discussions regarding
the Indo-European (“Indo-Germanic” or “Aryan”) problem have been
to a great extent inspired by the nationalistic ideas of German scholar Gustaf
Kossinna, who ascribed Mesolithic cultures of
As a kind of a theoretical
opposition to works of S.Müller and G.Kossina, in 1912 were published
investigations by Nils Åberg “Studier över den yngre stenåldern i Norden och
Västeuropa”. The author claimed that under the prehistoric time European
population was of a more homogeneous composition than in contemporary time. The
author analysed racial aspects of prehistoric European population, arguing that
during the Neolithic time dolichocephalous race was widely spread over
Considering the distribution
of the Ertebølle culture, which is, according to N.Åberg’s opinion, an
appropriate candidate for the proto-Germanic cultural substratum, the author
rejects the version of West-European coastal area as a prospective homeland of
the Indo-Aryans, arguing that this nation must have arose within the territory,
much more restricted geographically, such as e.g. Northern Europe. Applying the
“typological method”, the author considers
The dispute regarding the
prehistoric migrations in Neolithic Europe encouraged Sophus Müller to
formulate his hypothesis explicitly in
G.Bågenholm supposed that the
theoretical confrontation between S.Muller and G.Kossinna was more of a
political nature, provoked by the territorial conflicts in Southern Jutland. To
my opinion, however, it is also probable to regard the arguments of S.Muller as
addressed either against the constructions of G.Kossinna, as well as against
the ones of N.Åberg. Further development of the ideas of Nils Åberg was
presented the same year
Similar conception, but with even more obvious
political implication, was presented in the work Vår Forntid of Oscar
Montelius (1919): “…our land during younger Stone Age, and probably during
the Older Stone Age, has been inhabited by our Germanic forefathers… these
people were the first inhabitants of our land. That was our nation, which had
first settled here in
Summary
Making a general reflection of the first stage of the
Indo-European discussion in Scandinavian research literature, it is possible to
state that the main trend of the research has been determined by rather
nationalistic approaches of Danish, German and Swedish scholars. Being
initially focused in context of general theoretical considerations of the
prehistoric migrations in works of Sophus Müller, the problem became more and
more politically implicated due to the growing German nationalism before the
First World War. This tendency spread over the
Thus it is possible to see that from the very
beginning the Indo-European problem has been politically implicated, and as it
is going to be shown in further chapters, similar kind of political implication
remained considerable even until the recent years.
2.
Theoretical Innovations in the Indo-European Research:
1927-1936
One of the turning points for the development of
European archaeology might be associated with the publication of works of
Gordon Childe, particularly “The Aryans” (1926), which treated Indo-European
problem in original, debatable way.Though some authors tend to correlate the
ideas of Gordon Childe with his communist background and anti-Germanism, it is
possible to see that the ideas of G.Childe had a very well developed
theoretical base, and were shared in Scandinavian research literature.
In this regard should be mentioned work by Carl-Axel
Nordman “Den yngre stenåldern I Mellan-, Väst-, och Nordeuropa”. The
author raises the problem of origin of the Corded Ware culture, stating that
the solution is going to be most doubtful, unless a common proto-culture for
different Middle- and Eastern European groups would be found. Until that has
not been done, the problem is going to be almost insoluble, according to the
author’s opinion. Considering the choice between
These ideas were partly shared by Johannes Brøndsted,
who advocated his concept in work Vort Folks Oldtidsliv og forhistoriske
Minder. The author
argues that the place, wherefrom the Single Grave people came to
Otto Rydbeck supposed
that the STR invasion took place through Saxo-Thurinigian region, over
One of the most
remarkable works on the problem of the A-Horizon of European Corded Ware in
regard to the North European region was published by John-Elof Forssander in
1933. The book was titled “Die Schwedische Bootaxtkultur und ihre
kontinenten taleuropäischen Voraussetzungen”, and focused the typology of
the Swedish Corded Ware materials in connection with its continental
prototypes. The author points out three major cultures, which dominated the
other during the Neolithic time in Middle and
Regarding the cultural
transition from the Megalithic to the Battle Axe time in
Carl Johan Becker in his work “Enkeltgravskulturen
paa de danske Oer” considers the problem of introduction of the Single
Grave Culture in
Summary
The second stage of the
Indo-European research in Scandinavian historiography might be generally
characterized by the growing international influence. As an important factor,
which influenced the consideration of the problem to a great extent, should be
mentioned the works of Gordon Childe, who introduced a theory of South Russian
origin of Indo-Aryans. This theory has been completely accepted by C.A.Nordman,
J.-E.Forssander, and partly by J.Brøndsted. It seems unreasonable to explain
this approach by any kind of communist ideas, as it was done by G.Bågenholm. It
is also rather significant that a number of substantial researches on Scandinavian
prehistory were published in foreign (English and German) languages, and thus
intended for the international reader.
Making a reflection on the
theory of Indo-European origin from
3. The Second World War and Post-War
Research: 1938-1955.
Late 30-s of the 20th
century has been marked by the growing nationalistic tendencies in
archaeological and historical research, especially under the influence of
German nationalism. In this regard, it is necessary to mention a remarkable
work of Sten Florin, which is rather outstanding in methodological sense. The
author thoroughly examined the early Neolithic Funnel Beaker culture in the
area of Södermanland in his work “Vråkulturen: en
översikt över de senaste årens undersökningar av sörmländska jordbrukarboplatser
från äldre neolitisk tid”, and
treated the Funnel Beaker culture as a development from the Mesolithic
population of Södermanland, but with some “impulses” from more developed
agricultural areas in the south-west. He also advocated an approach, according
to which late middle Neolithic Battle Axe culture (Corded Ware culture) has
been regarded as a further development of the Funnel Beaker culture, again with
new “impulses” from other areas. S.Florin saw the Funnel Beaker culture
as settled farmers and the Battle Axe culture as having a more “nomadic”
way of life. As it was fairly noticed by Anders Carlsson, this mainly “adaptive”
view was not widely shared by other researchers, who frequently saw change as a
result of migrations.
Most of the researchers
remained rather conservative in their attitude towards the problem of
introduction of Neolithic cultures to
The problem of the
introduction of the Corded Ware to
As one of the most
considerable works, dedicated to the Indo-European problem, might be regarded
the work of Peter Vilhelm Glob “Studier over den jyske Enkeltgravskultur”.
The author explains the introduction of the Single Grave culture in terms of
migration. According to his conception, the tribes, that migrated to the North,
settled in
C.J.Becker examined the sites dated by sore-line
displacement in his work “Mosefunde lerkar fra yngre stenalder”, and from this he
concluded that “the Mesolithic culture did continue to exist in parallel
with an immigrant Neolithic culture through the entire Early Neolithic and into
the Middle Neolithic”.
Rather significant in methodological sense is
the work of Nils Åberg “Befolkningshistoria
under stenåldern”. The author expelled Aryan theory from his constructions,
arguing autochthonous and rather independent development of Scandinavian region
during the Neolithic time. N.Åberg argues seriously against the invasion
hypothesis, appealing to the results of typological investigations: “The
application of the invasion hypothesis to the Nordic find material might be
seen as a school example of a threat to the research, which lacks a typological
look for it’s material, and which is therefore facing a problem of the Nordic
cultural antagonism, gripping the whim, and after that violently forcing the
research material in this biased frame”.
Migration theory has
been advocated by Johannes Brøndsted in his work “Omkring
indoeropaeer-problemet”. The author supposed that the introduction of
agriculture in
C.J.Becker identified a
previously unknown final phase of the TRB, which was also present in central
and western
Summary
In this chapter the works of Nils Åberg, S.Florin, T.Mathiassen, S.Lindqvist, P.V.Glob, C.J.Becker, and J.Brøndsted are analysed. Making a reflection on the considered period of Indo-European research, it is possible to state that the most considerable changes in archaeological understanding of prehistory were provoked by the war. The Second World War might be considered as a turning point for the European archaeological science, the factor that shook and changed the approaches drastically. According to a good expression of Helmut Preidel, “the Second World War had changed not only the political boundaries, but it also removed the mental barriers, which constricted our views, it sobered up and cleaned all the atmosphere. Beloved and familiar view of the world has been stressed, and we lost any steady ground, and we found out how unstable and far from the reality was actually our world of ideas, in which we had been living before”.
It is possible to see how the idea of Aryan invasion
has been replaced in research literature by the theory of autochthonous
cultural development due to the political conjuncture. Nils Åberg, who was one
of the most respectable Swedish archaeologists of his time, and who remains one
of the main authorities for today’s apologists of the autochthonous cultural
development of
Though some of the researchers still advocated the
migration theory of explanation of the cultural innovations in Neolithic
Scandinavia, this approach became more and more unpopular and undesirable. In the next chapters of the work it will be
revealed how this approach has been concurring with the autochthonous one in
Scandinavian research of the second half of the 20th century, and
how it has been standing serious theoretical oppression.
4. The
Indo-European Problem and New Methods of Research:
1960-1980.
The sixties years of the
twentieth century were a fruitful period for the development of archaeological
science, which might be characterized by numerous discoveries and new
approaches. One of the most important theoretical schools, which appeared
during that time, is so-called “new” or “processual” archaeology,
advocated in the 1960s by researchers Lewis Binford and David Clark, who argued
for an explicitly scientific framework of archaeological method and theory. The
authors argued for the importance of explanation rather than simply description
in archaeological research. The new approach stressed
the dynamic relationship between social and economic aspects of culture and the
environment as the basis for understanding the processes of cultural change. It
is also necessary to note that “new archaeology” has been to a certain
extent inspired by the progress of new scientific methods of investigation,
particularly, the radiocarbon
method, which was developed by a team of scientists led by the late Professor
Willard F. Libby of the
The most significant changes in the methodological
field of the archaeological science at that time might be associated with the
epochal work of Mats P. Malmer “Jungneolithische Studien”, which focused
the development of the typological method in its regard to the study of the
Battle Axe culture. According to the starting point of the author, “if
archaeology is to be a science, its
concept formation and, above all, its type definitions must be improved”.
The work is important in many regards, it contributed the development of the
theoretical base of Scandinavian archaeology as well as contribution of the
Indo-European problem itself. The work is treating two general problems: 1)
systematization of the materials of Swedish-Norwegian Battle-Axe culture; and
2) development of the typological principle in archaeology. Depending on the
methodological investigations of the author, it is possible to argue that
M.P.Malmer to a certain extent was inspired by the theoretical innovations of “processual”
archaeology.
The author claims that there is a continuity between
TRB and STR from both cultural and ethnical aspects. The arguments are that the
concentration of STR tend to locate within the same areas as TRB, and that
there are numerous dwelling sites, which prove the idea that STR was a farming
culture, which could not have been introduced by the nomadic population.
Cultural changes were explained by the author in terms of religious and
ideological development.
However, not all of the Scandinavian
researchers consented to accept this point of view. Carl Fredrik Meinander
argued that “none of Malmer’s arguments for the autochthonous origin has
application to
Finnish Corded Ware has been an object of
investigation of Torsten Edgren, who considered the problem of cultural
continuity and innovation, arguing that “the Corded Ware culture in Finland
shows close relation with the corresponding group in Northern Europe, in it’s
oldest stage particularly with Haffkustkulturen, in certain degree even with
Swedish-Norwegian Battle Axe culture’s oldest ceramics and might be seen as a
result of immigration”. T.Edgren
explicitly shows the obvious intrusive character of Finnish STR culture: “This
is completely irrational that a cultural stream would change radically a part
of the culture, which means the changed series of the artefacts, new grave
forms, new settlement areas, but leave the other part completely untouched”.
The idea of Indo-European invasion has been mentioned
in the comprehensive work of Mårten Stenberger, dedicated to Swedish
prehistory, in 1969. The author noticed that the Battle Axe culture might
represent the traces of the invasion of the war-like Indo-European nation in
Scandinavia.
Another author, who did not accept M.Malmer’s
arguments, was C.J. Becker, who claimed seriously against detailed metrical and
statistical study of “new archaeology”. The author produced new arguments – on
archaeological grounds – “for overlap between TRB and Single Grave culture…
showing that archaeological and C14 dates cannot be brought into agreement”.
Another significant work, which has been to a
considerable extent influenced by the methods of “new archaeology”, is the work
of Stig Welinder “Kulturlandskapet i Mälaråmrådet”. The author doubts
the concept of cultural continuity between Battle Axe and Pitted Ware, and
separates STR from GRK as two ethnic groups. “The relationship between STR
and GRK cultures is uncertain. The easiest way to explain strong differences in
ceramics, stone tools, burial tradition etc. would be to suppose the existence
of two separate ethnic groups, which simultaneously kept oneself in
approximately same region”. “Finds of
Further development of the concept of M.P.Malmer has
been presented in
As standard arguments in favour of the migration
concept the author considers the arguments of Sophus Müller, assigned to three
particular points of discussion: 1) Chronological correlation of TRB and STR;
2) Typology of the artefacts from TRB and STR; 3) Spreading and origin of STR.
The author claims that “STR is not – in the region of Skåne’s size –
simultaneous with TRB, but succeeds it, what might be revealed both from the
stratigraphy of the finds, C14-dating and the complete lack of finds,
containing objects from both of the cultures. TRB and STR have not different
spreading, but, what is the most important, the same spreading… STR
artefacts are closely related to TRB and GRK ones”.
Regarding the problem of emergence of STR, M.P.Malmer
states that “the gradually increasing proportion of Corded Ware from
Analysing the idea of presumable cultural opposition
of Corded Ware and Bell-Beaker cultures, M.Malmer states that such kind of
confrontation is not reflected by the archaeological data, and therefore it
would not be reasonable to ascribe such a vast cultural groups to certain
ethnical formations. The Beaker cultures thus may be regarded as a younger
stadium in the development of the Western cultural tradition.
Similar ideas, but with more explicit attitude against
the migration concept have been formulated in next work of M.P. Malmer “Bostad,
boplats och bebyggelse”. According to the idea of the author, “there is
no ground for the common assumption that the
The report by Erik Jørgensen described
the author’s excavations of the period 1963-75, which included 2 dolmens, 4
passage graves, 80 stone-packing graves from MN IV-V, and publication of 35
barrows of the Corded Ware culture. The author argued that the archaeological
finds from Vroue do not answer definitely whether there is an overlap between
TRB and CWC, since C14-dates are still too few and their statistical
uncertainty too large, and the genuine cross finds between TRB and CWC are
still absent. However, the results of the investigation are hard to interpret
unambiguously, since they might be regarded as being partly in favour both of
migration or autochthonous approaches.
Karsten Davidsen treated STR culture as the evidence
of invasion in the work, dedicated to the final TRB culture in Denmark. The
author analysed chronological correlation of Valby materials with the relics of
other contemporary cultures, arguing that the Bottom Grave period in
As one of the most
explicit expressions of the autochthonous theory after M.P.Malmer in
Scandinavian archaeology might be treated work of Claus Malmros “Den tidlige
enkeltgravskultur og stridöskekultur”. The author attempted to show that a
“close contact must have existed between the Danish and Swedish Corded Ware
cultures and the Pitted Ware culture, being different expressions of the same
culture”. Although the author admits some restricted influences from the
continent, the Scandinavian cultural development is considered to be
principally autochthonous. The work of Claus Malmros produced further
discussion, which has been initiated by Klaus Ebbesen, who noticed that tanged
arrowheads of the A-type also occur in TRB contexts, “so for chronological
reasons Pitted Ware culture cannot be part of the Corded Ware culture, as
proposed by Malmros”.
Summary
In this chapter the works of M.P.Malmer,
C.F.Meinander, M.Stenberger, S.Welinder, C.Malmros, K.Ebbesen, E.Jørgensen,
and K.Davidsen are analysed. Generalizing the main theoretical tendencies of
the period of 60-70s in Scandinavian archaeological research, it is necessary
to mention that this period has been distinctive for the epochal investigations
of M.P.Malmer, and was to a great extent dominated by his scientific authority.
However, it is also important to mention that most of the researchers, who
advocated migration approach of explanation of cultural changes, have found
substantial arguments against theoretical constructions of M.P.Malmer, and the
considered period has been marked by the debates of a considerable theoretical
importance.
Speaking about the achievements of “new archaeology”
in regard of the study of the Neolithic, it would be fair to refer to the
impartial critics by Stig Welinder, who argued that “few studies extend far
enough along the time axis to include major change”, and that “individual
cases are discussed as unique events, not as exemplars of general theories”.
The author adds that “these two points are true of Swedish archaeology in
general and not only of the study of the Middle Neolithic”.
Nevertheless, it is necessary to note that the works
by Mats P. Malmer have formed a substantial basis for further investigations of
the Neolithic Scandinavia. Though some of the theoretical constructions of the
author were not in favour of further consideration of the Indo-European
problem, the works of M.P.Malmer turned to be a standard of well-structured
systematic research, which encouraged many of the young researchers in
5. The Indo-European Problem and Modern Theoretical Challenges: 1980-1988.
The end of the twentieth century has
been marked by the appearance of theoretical school of so-called “postprocessual”
archaeology, which is also known as “contextual”, “symbolic”, “interpretative”
or “critic” archaeology. Postprocessual archaeology was influenced by deconstructivism as a critical literary
methodology and practise of analysis of narratives.
Though postprocessualism contains no
unified ideological system, it has a number theoretical principles, which were
formulated by Ian Hodder: 1) The interpretative archaeology has a guarded
objectivity of the past that is not strictly positivistic. There is more than
one past, and the data come into existence dialectically. 2) The interpretative archaeology uses
hermeneutic procedures and methodology to get at internal meaning and read
between the lines. All artefacts have meaning and reflect norms, values, and
ideologies. 3) The interpretative archaeology is reflexive. Interpretation is
influenced by our biases. However, one should avoid creating vulgar history.
Postprocessual
approach to consideration of the controversial issues of Scandinavian Neolithic
has been introduced in works of Christopher Tilley.
The author interpreted the cultural development of the Middle Neolithic as a
process of interaction and confrontation of different economic, social, and
ideological systems: “social stresses and tensions may have developed as a
result of the continued co-existence in contiguous areas of two opposed
economic, social and ideological systems: the relatively stable agrarian social
groups represented by the Battle Axe tradition and the more fluid social
networks represented by the Battle Axe tradition and the more fluid social
networks represented by the hunting and gathering Pitted Ware tradition. There
does not appear to be much evidence of acculturation between the two on the
basis of the available evidence for material culture pattering. Furthermore
both traditions remained distinctive until their disappearance at the end of
the middle Neolithic”. Following Jan Hodder, the author supposes that the “stylistic
separation” of the two groups reflects the competition over resources.
Postprocessual approach has been also accepted by
Kristina Jennbert in her investigation of the transition from Mesolithic to
Early Neolithic in Scandinavia. Archaeological material from the Ertebølle
and Early TRB in Skåne has been discussed by the author, who argued that “there
are indications in
Such kind of approach might be refuted by the works of
M. Larsson, who analysed chronological differences and settlement patterns of
the two cultures, “with radical changes from late Ertebölle on the coast to
Early Neolithic in the interior, together with changes in social structure, and
differences in the types of tools”. These evidences were interpreted as if
no contact existed between the two groups.
Jan Skamby Madsen have shown in his investigation of
the spatial distribution of finds on different soils of East Jylland that there
existed a marked difference between an older phase (TRB culture) and a later
(CWC and Late Neolithic), which might be explained by different resource
exploitation and hence different economic patterns. The investigation has shown
“a gradual change in ecology and economy in some regions towards open
pastures and husbandry”, which was the dominant subsistence strategy of the
Single Grave Culture.
As a kind of conservative approach might be treated
work of Carl Fredrik Meinander, in which the author argued that “the
As a significant contribution to the discussion
regarding the Scandinavian Battle Axe culture might be regarded two
archaeological symposiums in Scandinavia, - Symposium in Vejle (Denmark,
1985), and symposium in Lund (Sweden, 31 october – 2 november 1988).
These two workshops were related to each other, being a development of the same
theoretical trend. Both of the symposiums were to a certain extent influenced
by the authority of Mats P. Malmer, what played an important role in the way of
presentation of the materials.
Among the most significant presentations of the first
of the symposiums, which was named“Stridsøksetid
i Sydskandinavien”, should probably be
mentioned the presentations, made by M.P.Malmer, S.Nielsen, and P.Persson. Mats
Malmer presented a reconsideration of his 1962 hypothesis about the habitation
sites and spatial distribution of STR. “Against what was then generally
accepted it was maintained that the TRB and Battle Axe cultures have the same
distribution, that objects from the 2 cultures never occur together in closed
finds, and that the Battle Axe culture consequently must be younger than the
TRB culture”.
Svend Nielsen advocated an approach, which interpreted
the finds of Battle Axe Culture artefacts on Pitted Ware Culture sites as later
relics from the succeeding cultural tradition. The author supposed that the
sites were used by that culture after the Pitted Ware Culture had abandoned
them.
Per Persson claimed that the Battle Axe Culture of
Middle Sweden is only a mortuary practice/tradition of the Pitted Ware Culture.
The second symposium, which should be considered as a
continuation of the previous session, was named “Stridsyxekultur I
Sydskandinavien”, and took place in
The next significant contribution to the discussion
concerning prehistoric migrations has been made by Lars Larsson, who suggested
to interpret the Battle-Axe culture as an “influence from outside with an
ideology that was attractive to some people from the traditional settlements.
These persons had to leave their old settlement areas and establish new ones in
external land. In doing so they might have disturbed an old economy based upon
transhumance, where small areas around the settlements were used intensively
for agriculture while cattle were driven to the interior for breeding during
much of the year”.
Another essential project, which has been realized
during late 80-s, was titled “Theoretical Approaches to Artefacts,
Settlement and Society”. The collection of articles has been published in
Lars Larsson considers cultural landscape of South
Scanian Baltic coast (Ljunit, Herrestad, Skateholm), discerning three main
phases of the transition “from a purely
catchments economy to an agrarian/pastoral economy”. These phases are: the Late Mesolithic, older
Early Neolithic and younger Early Neolithic. The author observes the main
models of the introduction of agriculture in
Anders Carlsson, depending on the works of Stig
Welinder and Mats Malmer, stated that “the three Stone Age cultures (TRB,
GRK, STR – S.S.) in the
Late
80-s were also marked by the growing diffusionistic approach towards the
interpretation of the entity of the development of Scandinavian Neolithic
cultures. B.Solberg discussed an immigration process with
an acculturation of Ertebølle groups and expansion of Funnel Beaker groups, viewing Denmark, south
Sweden and south Norway as a whole, and comparing archaeological data with
paleoecological. According to the opinion of the author, “several contact
networks between
Summary
In this chapter the works of C.Tilley, K.Jennbert,
S.Nielsen, P.Persson, M.P.Malmer, L.Larsson, J.S.Madsen, and Anders Carlsson
are analysed. Generalizing the research tendencies of the 1980-1989, it is
possible to state that this period has been marked by a gradual decline of the
migration concept in Scandinavian research literature, and by a kind of a crisis
of the Indo-European research as a whole. Most of the researchers were strongly
affected by the authority of Mats P. Malmer, and this tendency has been a
prevailing factor in study of the Neolithic. In the most remarkable cases the
cultural diversity of the Neolithic has been claimed to be a “fiction”.
Application of post-processual approach also did not
contribute the consideration of the migration issues, since the primary
interest of post-processual school is mostly related to the categories of mentality.
Christopher Tilley explained cultural interaction as an ideological process,
and Kristina Jennbert – as a social and gender issue. Therefore not much place
has been given to the prehistoric migrations and ethnic processes in research
literature. The followers of conservative approach were rather few, and
represented mostly the old generation of scholars. However, the situation has
changed drastically during the last years of the 20th century, which
are the object of consideration of the next chapter.
6.
Revival of the IE problem in Scandinavian Historiography:
1989-2003.
The revival of the Indo-European problem in
Scandinavian research is connected with the work of professor Kristian
Kristiansen, dedicated to the problem of prehistoric migrations on the
materials of Danish Single Grave and European Corded Ware cultures. Analysing
different interpretations of the cultural transition in MN Denmark, the author
assigned the existent approaches to the problem of emergence of the SGC to two
categories: the migration and autochthonous ones. The author thoroughly
considered numerous arguments pro et contra both of the theories, evenly
concluding that “there is little left in support of a pure autonomous
hypothesis”. The crucial argument in favour of the migration concept is
explicit cultural break between TRB and STR, which allows supposing that no
contact existed between the two groups. This statement is relevant either in
sense of economy, ideology, social stratification, settlement distribution, as
well as in characteristics of the material culture. According to the remarkable
formulation, given by the author, “the case of the Single Grave Culture in
The author has stressed a remarkable
dissimilarity in the ideological basis of the two societies, one of them being
based upon an ideology of hierarchy, warfare and domination, while another one
representing moderate agrarian society. It should be noticed that this aspect
of ideological and social antagonism of SGC and TRB has often been missed by
the researchers, who claim in favour of the idea of cultural continuity in
Analysing diverse aspects of the problem, such
as: genesis of the SGC, kurgan influxes, nature of expansion, relations to the
hunter-gathering substratum, climatic factors, theoretical approaches to the
processes of population movements, the author notices that the survey should
serve “a more well defined and well argued platform for future discussions”,
which would encourage the authors to produce either falsification or
confirmation of the presented hypothesis.
The interest to the problem of the emergence of
STR has been shared by O. Johansen, who analysed earlier theories of the origin
of the Scandinavian Battle Axe cultures, and the changes in the archaeological
materials, and interpreted the emergence of STR as a result of intrusion of
small immigration groups as well as acculturation of the indigenous cultures.
The significant work of K.Kristiansen provoked a
debate, initiated by C.J.Becker in 1990. The author, discussing the arguments
of K.Kristiansen in regard of the Jutland Single Grave Culture, pointed out the
following details: 1) “As it is the situation in Jutland that is being
concerned, a better starting point might have been Malmer’s work (1962)”,
rather than the later C14 researches; 2) The debates of the 1930’s and 40’s are
missed in the survey; 3) The significance of the researches of the 1950’s and
60’s is not well appreciated; 4) The absence of the skeletal material does not
allow drawing any conclusive statements. However, it is necessary to note that
in exception of these critical remarks, the author evades the direct discussion
of the problem, appealing only to old works of N.Åberg, and stating that there
is no sufficient materials for either refutation or confirmation of the theory.
As in the regard of the debates of 1930-40’s, as well as appreciation of the
works of 1950-60’s, it has already been noticed in the historiographical
chapter of this thesis that the article of K.Kristiansen presented an original
research, and therefore did not aim to give a detailed historiographical
account of the discussions.
The
problem of the origin of TRB has been reconsidered in work of S.H. Andersen,
who argued that “there is a sharp break between the Late Mesolithic and the
Early Neolithic from the stratigraphies” of different sites of
Implicit edition of post-processual approach has been
applied in work of H.Browall, who attempted to reveal the “sociological
connection between the fall of the megalithic tradition, the use of the pile
dwelling and the change–over from TRB to GRK”. The author explains the
cultural changes in “ideological-social” terms, which are proposed as “a
supplement to ecological-economic interpretations”. Though the author does
not treat the problem of IE migration explicitly, his arguments are obviously
in favour of the autochthonic view. This fact might be supported by the
author’s thesis that “the interpretation should be extended to include the
relationship between the Pitted Ware culture and the
Lars Larsson in a similar way supposed the same source
for the TRB and GRK cultures. As an explanation of the emergence of STR, the
author suggested the idea of cultural impulse from the continent upon the
coastal settlers.
This tendency of revival of the autochthonous
tradition of the explanation of cultural development has been to a greater
extent presented in the work of M.P.Malmer “The Battle-Axe and Beaker
culture from an ethno-archaeological point of view”. On the basis of
analysis of different philosophical systems, from neo-positivism to
post-processualism, the author stated that “there is neither evidence
nor reason for migrations in connection with the
Charlotte Damm has published a research on the problem
of origin of Danish Single Grave Culture. The author argued that the “common
traits ascribed to the Single Grave and Corded Ware Cultures across parts of
Europe could be seen as some of the elements used in a series of complex social
and economic changes in the Neolithic societies rather than the result of
migrations”. The work represent a new edition of older author’s concepts.
As one of the most considerable contributions to the
discussion regarding the Indo-European problem, and particularly – one of the
most controversial questions of the Indo-European problem – European A-Horizon
might be treated the conference in
As a starting point for
the analysis of the presented materials might be taken the thesis of Alexander
Kosko, in which he pointed out that “in studies of the so-called horizon A
(pan-European) of the CWC two perspectives
(types of studies) may be distinguished: interregional and regional.
While the conception of the “horizon” itself is derived from studies of the
first type, the process of either its justification or falsification (depending
on the methodological orientation) is closely connected with the latter”.
This thesis reflects the presentation of the materials of the conference in
general, and it would be reasonable to assign all the presentations of the
authors to two categories: regional and inter-regional.
Among regional-focused
presentations should be mentioned works by H.Behrens, J.Benes, E.Drenth &
A.Lanting, W.Guminski, F.Hallgren, A.Kosko, I.Loze, H.Sørensen, C.Wolf,
S.Nielsen. Fredrik Hallgren presented a research on the
problem of the Fågelbacken settlements. The author analysed the location of the
settlements on the site of Fågelbacken.
The Battle Axe settlement is surrounded by the TRB and GRK settlements,
what proves that the development of STR was a separate cultural process in the
region, on the contrary to what has been stated by the followers of the idea of
genetic relations between STR and GRK, and the idea of secondary social meaning
of STR culture. The author suggests to interpret the battle axes as marks of
ethnicity, which were “most strongly pronounced in a situation of stress…
when a group is in contact with another group”.
Hugo Sørensen, analysing the local material from
Svend Nielsen, summarizing the materials of
investigations of Finnish STR, notes that “if one ad hears to the
archaeological and scientific evidence at present, there is nothing to indicate
that the Corded Ware Culture in Finland practised agriculture or had any
domesticated animals but the dog”. The author says this to be an “extraordinary
situation” since the STR have almost exclusively been known as Neolithic
one, and draws a conclusion that “perhaps it is too early to state
conclusively that no kind of farming existed Finland at this time”.
The researches by H.Behrens, J.Benes, E.Drenth & A.Lanting,
and C.Wolf were intended to refute the theory of the A-Horizon, and argued
seriously against the idea of common origin of the Corded Ware Culture.
However, discussion of these papers, which would be of the most scientific
importance, does not fit into the aim of this particular thesis, and therefore
should be made within other project.
Among inter-regionally focused researches, introduced at
the considered conference, should be mentioned the presentations by J.Beran,
M.Buchvaldek, K.Ebbesen, and J.Jacobs. Klaus Ebbesen, who is the only
Scandinavian researcher among the mentioned scientists, presented an account,
which claimed to comprise regional traits of the emerging Corded Ware A-Horizon
all over the Europe. By the end of his survey the author draws a conclusion
that the A-Horizon exists only in the world of fantastic. However, the author critisizes the
methodological approach of the authors of the early 20th century,
who attempted to reveal a pure archaeological culture, which would embrace
different European regions, manifesting itself with the uniformed series of
artefacts and human remains. The development of the archaeological science has
shown that such an approach does not reflect any historical reality. As it has
been fairly noticed by K.Kristiansen, “we cannot expect á priory to find a
unified material culture between areas of supposed origin and areas of final
settlement”.
Making a general conclusion upon the materials of the
conference, it is possible to state that though the idea of the A-Horizon has
been implicitly rejected by most of the authors, the presentations allow
concluding that the research concepts have been released from the old
authorities, which affected the consideration of the IE problem during
1970-80-s. The materials of the conference reflect broad methodological and
theoretical diversity, which might be treated as a new factor of the development
of Scandinavian archaeological research.
Series of researches, made by F. Hallgren on the
materials of Mid-Swedish Fågelbacken site, which have some regard to the
consideration of the IE problem, were published during middle and late 90-s.
The author analysed the material from Fågelbacken site from the ethnical and
cultural points. In his analysis, the author appealed to the work of Stig
Welinder from
The approach of F.Hallgren has been shared by Eva
Olsson, who claimed that older species of STR are located within the inner
parts of
A substantial reflection of the problem has been given
by Lars Larsson in his work “Neolithic Societies and Their Environments in
Southern Sweden: a Case Study”. The author noticed that “it is difficult
in the southern Scandinavian STR complexes to identify any tradition from the
TRB which might reasonably be expected to have existed in the event of a linear
change from the late TRB to the early STR”, and that “the Scanian dates
support the assumption that the late TRB in southernmost Sweden could have
existed parallel to the early STR”. However, the author does not bring
himself to accept the migration theory, but prudently finds a kind of a
compromise between the approaches. The author suggested the model of intrusion
of STR in
The problem of the introduction of TRB has been
reconsidered by Per Persson in his work “Neolitikums början”, where the
author gives a critical survey of existent theories on the introduction of
agriculture in Scandinavia, and draws the conclusion that today does not yet
exist such a theory, which would explain the introduction of agriculture in
Northern Europe in accordance with the archaeological material, and which would
be at the same time logically constructed. However, the author tends to deny
the concept of the migration of the farming cultures.
One of the most substantial works, dedicated to the
Indo-European problem in Scandinavian research, which would be the last point
of consideration of this survey, is the work of Gösta Bågenholm “Arkeologi och språk i norra
ostersjöområdet”. The author made a broad survey of different approaches
towards the problem of Indo-Europeanization of Scandinavia, and argued in
favour of the idea of the autochthonous cultural development. Arguing against
the conception of “Kurganization”, formulated by Maria Gimbutas,
G.Bågenholm states, that “the language of archaeology (verbalized/visualized
by C14 datings) speaks against the
Recent
investigations of the researchers from the
Summary
The last period, considered in the thesis, is treated
as a revival of the IE problem in Scandinavian research literature, which might
be associated with a remarkable work of professor Kristian Kristiansen,
dedicated to the problem of prehistoric migrations on the materials of Danish
Single Grave and European Corded Ware cultures. It has been shown, that
substantial arguments on the archaeological basis in favour of the migration
theory do not left much for the autochthonous theory. Further theoretical
dispute with C.J.Becker is considered, and it is noticed that all of the
arguments of the author in favour of the autochthonous development appeal to
the works of Nils Åberg. The works by S.H.Andersen, H.Browall, L.Larsson,
M.P.Malmer, F.Hallgren, H.Sörensen, S.Nielsen, P.Persson, and G.Bågenholm are
analysed.
As a rather significant event is regarded the
conference, dedicated to the consideration of the A-Horizon problem are
reviewed, which took place in
Arguments of Gösta Bågenholm in favour of the
autochthonous theory are revised and refuted. It has been shown, how the author forges the
chronological correlation of the finds, advisedly ignoring the dates from the
Abora I settlement, (A-horizon from 3350-3040 BC), and attempts to treat them
as not completely presentable ones. However, recent investigations of the
researchers from
Conclusive chapter: Summary and
Discussion
This work is a first
complete survey of the Indo-European discussion in Scandinavian research
literature. In the first chapter of the thesis the rise of the IE
problem has been discussed, starting from the works of Sophus Muller and Gustaf
Kossina, to the investigations by Nils Åberg and Gunnar Ekholm. The nationalistic
aspect of the early stages of the research has been stressed, and the political
implication of the research concepts revealed. It has been shown, how the term
“Aryans” has been adopted by Scandinavian researchers for the
explanation of the ethnical processes of the Neolithic, and how the First World
War affected the consideration of the problem.
The second chapter
of the thesis is dedicated to analysis of the international influence on
Scandinavian research, application of new theories to the explanation of the IE
origins. Influence of Gordon Childe on Scandinavian research is particularized
on the example of the works of C.A.Nordman and J.Brøndsted. The works by
O.Rydbeck and C.J.Becker are analysed. The Pontic-Caspian theory of IE origin
is critically commented.
In the third chapter
of the thesis the influence of the Second World War on the consideration of the
IE problem is discussed, with emphasis on the development of the research
conceptions due to the political conjuncture. It has been shown how the idea of Aryan invasion has been replaced in research literature by the
theory of autochthonous cultural development on the example of the works of
Nils Åberg. The works of S.Florin, T.Mathiassen, S.Lindqvist, P.V.Glob,
C.J.Becker, and J.Bröndested are analysed. It has been stressed that though
some of the researchers still advocated the migration theory of explanation of
the cultural innovations in Neolithic Scandinavia, this approach became more
and more unpopular and undesirable during the post-war years.
The fourth chapter treats the problem of
methodological innovations in Scandinavian research, and its application
towards the consideration of the IE problem. The influence of “New” archaeology
is emphasized, and the development of the typological method by Mats P. Malmer
is considered in connection with the general development of modern
archaeological science. The autochthonous approach is shown in the opposition
with the migration theory. Arguments of M.P.Malmer against the constructions of
S.Muller are discussed. The works of C.F.Meinander, M.Stenberger, S.Welinder,
C.Malmros, K.Ebbesen, E.Jørgensen, and K.Davidsen are analysed. It has been shown that the works
of Mats P. Malmer have formed a substantial basis for further investigations of
Neolithic Scandinavia.
The problem of
“post-processual” theoretical challenge to the IE problem is discussed in the fifth
chapter of the thesis. The works by C.Tilley, K.Jennbert are analysed. It
is shown that not much place has been given to the
prehistoric migrations and ethnic processes in research literature, partly due
to the specific research interests of the post-processual school, partly due to
the influence of the autochthonous theory. Primary interest of post-processual
school to the categories of mentality is shown, and period of 1980-
The last chapter of the thesis, which is the sixth
chapter, is dedicated to the revival of consideration of the IE problem in
Scandinavian research literature, connected with the work of professor Kristian
Kristiansen, dedicated to the problem of prehistoric migrations on the
materials of Danish Single Grave and European Corded Ware cultures. Arguments
in favour of migration theory, as well as further theoretical discussion with C.J.Becker,
are considered. The works by S.H.Andersen, H.Browall, L.Larsson, M.P.Malmer,
F.Hallgren, H.Sørensen, S.Nielsen, P.Persson, and G.Bågenholm are analysed. The
materials of the conference, dedicated to the consideration of the A-Horizon
problem are reviewed. A work by Lars Larsson is considered as an important step
towards the wider acknowledgement of the migration theory in Scandinavian
research literature. Arguments of Gösta Bågenholm in favour of the
autochthonous theory are revised and refuted.
Analysing Scandinavian historiography on the IE problem, it is possible to reveal that the development of discussion had more or less cyclic character, with the growth and declines of intense. The recent years have been marked by the growing interest towards the Indo-European problem (Prescott & Wahlderhaug 1995; Bågenholm 1999; Welinder 2003) and the issues of prehistoric migrations (Damm 1991; Persson 1999; Kristiansen et alii 2002), both being the crucial questions of identity in Scandinavian archaeological research. The authors presented different approaches to the problem, what may be regarded as a revival after the methodological uniformity of the 1970-80-s, when “under en period av circa tjugo år var migrationsteorier nästan helt utmönstrade ur skandinavisk arkeologisk teori”.
The present discussions focus the following aspects of the Indo-European
problem:
1) The ways of the introduction of Neolithic economy in
2) The emergence of STR, which has been the crucial point of the IE discussion
since late 19th century, when S.Muller supposed the intrusive
character of Scandinavian Corded Ware (Muller 1897). Latest
contributions: (Kristiansen 1989; Becker 1990; Larsson L. 1991; Prescott
& Wahlderhaug 1995; Lindström 1996; Sørensen 1997; Bågenholm 1995, 1999).
3) Relation of STR to GRK and TRB. The problem is a point of discussion
since 1974, when S.Welinder formulated the idea of ethnical dualism under the
MN (Welinder 1974). Latest contributions: (Browall 1991; Olsson 1996;
Hallgren 1996, 1997).
As further perspective approaches to the Indo-European problem it would
be reasonable to formulate the following ones:
1) Calibration of C-14 datings from the Corded Ware sites of the Baltic
region,
2) Quantitative analysis of the distribution of the finds, related to the
European A-horizon of the Corded Ware, construction of regional matrixes.
Further typological systematization is required, since the uniformed character
of the material is debated (Behrens 1997).
3) Interpretative analysis of the materials from the “mixed” sites (e.g.
Fagervik, Kyrktorp), and culturally split settlements (e.g. Fågelbacken). The
interpretation of the materials remains debatable (see: Hallgren 1996, 1997;
Malmer 2002).
4) Further craniological analysis of the materials from the early STR and
TRB cultures. The necessity of the analysis of the skeletal remains from the
early STR was argued (Becker 1990), however with the notification of
absence of sufficient materials. In this regard it is necessary to mention
skeletal remains from Bedinge (Swedish-Norwegian STR, See: During 1989),
which give essential data for further investigations.
© 2004 Sergey Sannikov
Abbreviations
Aarb. Aarbøger for Nordisk Oldkyndighet og Historie (København)
Acta Acta
Archaeologica (Købehavn)
Antiquity Antiquity
(
Arkeologi i Sverige Arkeologi i Sverige. Riksantikvarieämbetet.
B.C. Before Christ, calibrated
b.c. Before
Christ, uncalibrated
B.P. Before
Present, calibrated
b.p. Before
Present, uncalibrated
CSA Current
Swedish Archaeology (
CWC Corded
Ware Culture (STR)
EBK Ertebølle
culture (Danish Ertebøllekultur)
EN Early
Neolithic
Fv Fornvännen.
Journal of Swedish Antiquarian Research (
GRK Pitted
Ware Culture (Swedish Gropkeramisk kultur)
IE Indo-European
JDA Journal
of Danish Archaeology
LN Late
Neolithic
MN Middle
Neolithic
NAA Nordic
Archaeological Abstracts
SGC Single
Grave Culture (
SN LN (Swedish Senneolitikum)
TN EN (Swedish Tidigneolitikum)
STR Battle
Axe culture (Swedish Stridsyxekultur)
Tor Tor. Tidskrift för arkeologi. Journal of Archaeology (
TRB Funnel Beaker culture (Swedish Trattbägarkulturen)
Viking Viking. Norsk arkeologisk årbok (Oslo)
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